The Technology of Ancient Rome

McCullough, Naomi. The Technology of Ancient Rome. 2017. Part of the Ancient Innovations series. 64p. ISBN 978-1-5026-2233-4. Available at 937 MCC on the library shelves.

The Roman Empire stretched from the Atlantic to the Middle East and from Britain to Egypt, controlling millions of people and countless countries. The will of the people of Rome motivated these conquests and powered the Empire’s drive, yet the Romans may not have left behind a lasting legacy was it not for their technology, which endures in many forms even today.

Seldom innovators, the Romans instead adopted technologies from those who surrounded them and adapted them for their own purposes, streamlining and increasing efficiencies along the way until they had built an unstoppable imperial machine. Paved roads had been constructed elsewhere in the world, but the Romans are the first to deploy an extensive network of paved roads with distance markers between their cities. Services such as hotels and motels developed along the roads and became popular with travelers. Bridges were constructed of stone and cement and spanned distances previously unfathomable.

Cities benefited from an increase in agricultural harvests with the improvement of water mills. Greek water mills could grind 15 pounds of wheat into flour in a day, but new designs and adaptations by the Romans increased this amount exponentially, such that many mills ground 20 to 30 tons of flour a day. Tools were designed to make the harvest process more efficients. Buildings were also improved with concrete, indoor plumbing and heating, while cheaper apartment building poorly constructed stretched to the skies. Aqueducts delivered water from far distances to quench the thirst of city residents. Bath houses and toilets provided a certain level of sanitary infrastructure unequaled for the next fifteen hundred years. Finally, medical innovations allowed soldiers to survive battles, new calendars more precisely tracked time, and the mass production of weapons and armor ensured that for centuries Rome’s might stood unchallenged.

Cicero

Lowery, Zoe and Fiona Forsyth. Cicero. Part of the Leaders of the Ancient World series. 2017. 112p. ISBN 978-1-50817258-1. Available at B CIC on the library shelves.

The most prolific writer of the ancient Roman world, Marcus Tullius Cicero played a major part in the transformation of Rome from a Republic to an Empire, and lost his life in the process for choosing the losing side. A contemporary of Julius Caesar and Mark Anthony, Cicero lived from 106 BCE to 43 BCE, when he was assassinated under the direct order of Octavian. Known for extensive letters and books which covered daily Roman life, Cicero was also a Senator, a scholar, a poet and a lawyer. Recognized as the best orator of his era, Cicero’s ability to motivate crowds is one of the reason he lost his life. Cicero’s personal life thus follows the ups and downs of the collapse of the Republic and the bid of several strong men to take control of Rome, until Octavian successfully crowned himself Augustus.

Fans of Rome and of its dysfunctional political system will appreciate how Cicero was able to exploit, and ultimately fell victim to, a system designed to administer a city, and not an empire.

The Countryside in the Roman Empire

Lane, Allison. The Countryside in the Roman Empire. Part of Life in the Roman Empire series. 2017. 80p. ISBN 978-1502622617. Available at 937.06 LAN on the library shelves.

Roman patricians and poets portrayed life in the countryside as idyllic, but for the vast majority of people this was not the case. Though living in the countryside differed depending on one’s location within the Empire, for the most part it involved a hard life farming a land that never produced enough to allow people to get ahead. Farmers worked year round. Children immediately began taking care of chores to help the family out. Whereas the work day in the city was fairly short, in the country farmers worked the entire day, from sunrise to sunset as there were always tasks that needed accomplishing.

With an average lifespan of under thirty, Romans in the countryside experienced hard living. Though lauded by city folks for providing the Empire with enough food, farming was backbreaking labor. The rise of large estates also led to a decline in small farm holdings, reducing the number of owners along with their drive to maintain their properties. Both men and women worked on the farm and accomplished many chores. Whereas men had the possibility to hunt and fish, women focused on weaving and childrearing, as well as ensuring that the farm household ran smoothly.

Life in the countryside was not all trials and challenges, however. There were many holidays celebrating farming and agriculture. Farmers and their families generally also enjoyed more space and better food than their city counterparts. And there were more opportunities for children to play than in the city.

Other titles in this series include The City in the Roman Empire, Patricians in the Roman Empire, and Religion in the Roman Empire.

The City in the Roman Empire

Mackley, Daniel. The City in the Roman Empire. Part of the Life in the Roman Empire series. 2017. 80p. ISBN 978-1-5026-2259-4. Available at 307.76 MAC on the library shelves.

As the model for every city in the Roman Empire, Rome stood at the height of urban development not equalled until the Industrial Age. Roman cities had many features recognizable to a person living today, from fresh running water piped to fountains and baths throughout the city to paved roads and sewer systems. Restaurants and shops lined the streets, while large apartment complexes stretched up to seven stories in the sky. Entertainment facilities such as amphitheatres and arenas allowed the citizens to relax and enjoy themselves.

Without artificial lighting powerful enough to banish the night, most Romans awoke at dawn and were out and about until dusk, when the city became unsafe. The average Roman, who lived to be 27, worked in the morning and returned home for lunch, followed by an afternoon of entertainment at the baths, libraries, or in public places with friends. Men, women, and slaves all had leisure time build in their schedules. A myriad of public holidays ensured that the workweek was never too long.

Most citizens lived in apartments with no cooking facilities due to the risk of fire. They ate out, or enjoyed a meal of cold beans and bread. Dangers such as fire and natural disasters could wipe out cities in a manner of hours. The cost of living was high in Rome, and work could be hard to get. A prelude to the feudal system, most Romans had a patron that took care of them. In exchange they accomplished small tasks for them.

Though Roman life was hard, living in a city could provide significant enjoyment for its residents. It wasn’t until the growth of London and Paris in the 1700s that Rome’s population of over one million people was finally exceeded in the Western world.

Other titles in this series include The Countryside in the Roman Empire, Patricians in the Roman Empire, and Religion in the Roman Empire.

Patricians in the Roman Empire

Jacobs, Denise. Patricians in the Roman Empire. Part of the Life in the Roman Empire series. 2017. 80p. ISBN 978-1-5026-2257-0. Available at 305.52 JAC on the library shelves.

Though Rome’s Imperial system placed a man at the head of the Empire, this individual could not effectively govern without significant contributions and support from the wealthiest members of Roman society, the Patricians. When the last of Rome’s seven kings was overthrown, he was replaced by a Republic, governed by a Senate. Members of the Senate came from wealthy families and were appointed for life. Following the death of Julius Caesar and the civil war that ensued, Augustus assumed control of the state but continued to rely on the Senate to pass laws and administer the state. Successive emperors whittled down the political power of the Senate until it became nothing more than a debating body.

Patrician men were born into their positions. They had private tutors as children and were taught how to read and write, basic mathematics, and the art of rhetoric and public speaking. They generally served in the military for a number of years before seeking more powerful offices such as Tribune or Consul. Patrician women were married young and were educated enough to run a large household made up of family members and slaves.

Life as a Patrician had its rewards. They were not worried about where their next meal came, and they threw lavish entertainment to keep themselves and the people pacified. Theirs was a life of luxury unequalled until the Renaissance. At the same time the political power plays that took place could quickly led to their downfall and even death. As the ruling class of Rome, the Patricians kept the state functioning, but as long as it benefited them.

Other titles in this series include The Countryside in the Roman Empire, The City in the Roman Empire, and Religion in the Roman Empire.

A Visual History of the Great Civilizations

Hernandez, Alberto. A Visual History of the Great Civilizations. Part of the Visual History of the World series. 2017. 100p. ISBN 978-1499465747. Available at 909 HER on the library shelves.

The emergence of great civilizations throughout history followed the growth of sedentary villages that produced a surplus of food capable of feeding specialized workers. The rise of various kingdoms in Mesopotamia was followed by the spread of egypt’s influence on the Mediterranean world. Great civilizations also independently arose in India, China, Western Europe, and Central and South America. These civilizations produced large buildings, codes of laws, religious fervor, and standardization. In turn, these civilizations birthed others that soon competed and eclipsed them. The Ancient Greeks and Persians fought often, but Rome replaced them both. Rome itself fell, but it's eastern half remained for another thousand years before collapsing under the pressure of Islam and the Turks. The Vikings plundered throughout Western and Northern Europe, even reaching as far as North America.

This illustrates history of great civilizations provide a gorgeous visual guide to life at specific moments at the height of each civilization described, and include basic historical facts to both situate the civilization in world history as well as to explain its particular contributions to world culture. Fans of history will appreciate the overview of great civiliations that this book provides.

Religion in the Roman Empire

Holtzer, Ben. Religion in the Roman Empire. Part of the Life in the Roman Empire series. 2017. 80p. ISBN 978-1-5026-2263-1. Available at 292.07 HOL on the library shelves.

Life in the Roman Empire could be hard, but the Romans believed that deities and spirits surrounded and protected them from Fate and from their enemies. The Roman pantheon of gods and goddesses was varied and incorporated the worship of deities as far away as Egypt and the Middle East into a homegrown version of the Greek gods. Along with the major gods and goddesses, worshipped throughout the Empire under different names, the Romans believed that each man and woman had their own guardian spirit, while their houses and cities did too. As a result a series of elaborate rituals arose to celebrate and appease these spirits to gain their blessings.

As the Empire expanded, more deities were added to the well-known deities such as Jupiter and Venus. Women were an integral part of worship, and often had their own religious duties to perform. The Vestal virgins kept Rome’s eternal flame going. The wives of Emperors were worshipped as deities and, while alive, held sumptuous services to the gods. For the Romans, religion was a fact of life, neither questioned nor doubted.

The rise of the monotheistic religion of Christianity at first went unnoticed in the halls of power, but as Christians gained in popularity their demands that only God be worshipped drew the ire of Emperors. Christians were martyred and executed, but in the end Constantine converted to Christianity and eventually all Roman gods were banned. For hundred of years afterwards Roman deities continued to be worshiped, but as the Empire fell and was replaced by competing kingdoms, Christianity triumphed and the gods disappeared. Their names remain, however, both in the days of the week and in the months of the year.

Other titles in this series include The Countryside in the Roman Empire, The City in the Roman Empire, and Patricians in the Roman Empire.

Persian Myths

Sarkhosh Curtis, Vesta. Persian Myths. 1998. 80p. ISBN 0-292-71158-1. Available at 299 CUR on the library shelves.

Occupying a strategic between India and China to the East and the Mediterranean world to the West, Iran has always been a land of conflict and contrast. Like other great civilizations before, the Iranians have foundational myths that explain the rise of the nation and the battles it had to fight to secure its existence. Traditional tales feature confrontation between holy kings and mighty heroes against armies led by evil men, demons and dragons. Supernatural creatures such as Simergh, a magical bird from the tallest mountain, or Rakhsh, the mightest horse of the hero Rustam, populate these tales and attempt to explain the world as it was.

The arrival of Islam in the seventh century saw a shift from Zoroastrianism to Islam, but the myths and legends of ancient Iran were too powerful to disappear and were instead coopted by the new religion. These tales, which include the original Thousands and One Night, were distributed orally through minstrels, storytellers and religious leaders, but were eventually documented in several books such as the Avesta, the holy book of the Zoroastrians, as well as the Shahnameh, the Book of Kings.

These myths and legends fueled Iranian art over more than six centuries and continue to provide inspiration for modern adaptations. Fans of myths will enjoy reading familiar tales of good versus evil in an unfamiliar setting, and will appreciate the rich culture of ancient Iran.

Stonehenge

Mass, Wendy. Stonehenge. Part of the Building History Series. 1998. 96p. ISBN 1-56006-432-3. Available at 936 MAS on the library shelves.

One of the world’s most mysterious structure is the stone array of Stonehenge. Built over two millenia, from 3,000 to 1,100 BCE, the purpose of Stonehenge remains unclear to this day. Speculations abound that it served as a calendar, as a holy site, as a druid gathering places, or to track eclipses. But how it was erected is as fascinating as what it is used for.

The blue and sarsen stones that were used in the construction of Stonehenge are not from the Salisbury Plains. They were taken and shaped miles away, then brought to the site. The blue stones, between 4 and 8 tons, came from Mount Prescelly, in Southern Wales, about 135 miles away and were probably transported by ship most of the way. In the case of the larger sarsen stones, they originated about 24 miles away, but as each rock weighed up to 40 tons, moving them over land would have been an engineering feet.

The construction of the site followed four distinct stages, with the third stage being further separated in three separate phases. Each time, the arrangement of the stones were shifted around to accommodate different uses. The erection of the lintels, the piece of stone that sat on top of two parallel sarsens, required extensive engineering and manpower to accomplish.

By the time the Romans conquered England, Stonehenge was already over a thousand years old, and its purpose had disappeared along with the inhabitants who created it. Since then, there have been much speculation about what it was used for. As these continue, however, the site is deteriorating due to weather, pollution, and human activities. Efforts are taking place to preserve the site for future generations, so they too can enjoy the mystery and the quiet majesty that is Stonehenge.

Terra-Cotta Soldiers: Army of Stone

Dean, Arlan. Terra-Cotta Soldiers: Army of Stone. Part of the Digging Up the Past series. 2005. 48p. ISBN 0-516-25124-4. Available at 931 DEA on the library shelves.

More than 2,200 years ago, China was divided in seven states, all warring with each other for dominance over the region. One of these states was ruled by a strong man named Chao Cheng. Using novel military tactics, he succeeded in conquering all of the six remaining states one at a time until he was able to unify China. He crowned himself emperor and took the name Qin Shi Huangdi.

Among his many accomplishments were the standardization of the Chinese language and of weights and measures. He also reformed the government and the military. Most importantly, though, Qin Shi Huangdi is known for commissioning a large terra-cotta army that would follow him in the afterlife. His tomb was erected at great costs, both in terms of money and in terms of human capital. Covering over 20 square miles, it included palaces, training fields, and all of the comforts he had enjoyed in life. To protect it all he commissioned an army that could guard him in the afterlife.

Each soldier in this 8,000 strong army is modeled after a specific individual, and comes equipped with weapons and armor of the era. Brightly painted, the army also featured horses and wagons. Discovered in 1974 by farmers, the site has been extensively excavated by archaeologists and has been placed on UNESCO’s list of world heritage sites.